Feed Availability, Negative Energy Balance and Its Effect on Reproduction of Farm Animals
Pandiri Keerthana*1, Arya M Narkhede1, M.S. Bawaskar2, D.S. Raghuwanshi2, A.P. Gawande2 and M.S. Patil2
- PhD Scholar, Department of ARGO, NVC, Nagpur
- Professor, Department of ARGO, NVC, Nagpur
Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
Nagpur Veterinary College,
Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University-440006, Nagpur
Email ID: keerthanapandiri2307@gmail.com (Corresponding author)
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Abstract / Summary
Good feeding is the foundation of healthy and productive livestock. Animals need enough energy, protein, minerals and vitamins not only for growth and milk production but also for normal reproduction. In India, the large livestock population puts considerable pressure on available feed and fodder resources. National estimates show shortages of green fodder, dry fodder and concentrate feed. The problem is more noticeable at the farm level, where the quantity and quality of feed may change with season, location and cost. When an animal receives less energy than it needs, it enters a condition called negative energy balance (NEB). This is especially common in high-producing dairy cows during the first few weeks after calving. The animal then uses its body reserves to support milk production. If this condition continues for a long time, it can lead to loss of body condition, delayed heat, delayed ovulation, poor conception and a longer calving interval. Therefore, improving feed availability and providing balanced nutrition are important not only for production but also for maintaining good reproductive efficiency.
Keywords: Feed availability, fodder shortage, negative energy balance, cattle reproduction, fertility, green fodder, concentrate feed, livestock nutrition
Introduction
India has a very large livestock population, and cattle are an important part of rural farming systems. According to the 20th Livestock Census, India had about 192.49 million cattle in 2019, including approximately 145.12 million female cattle (Government of India, 2019).
Feeding such a large population throughout the year is a major challenge. The availability of fodder is not the same in every part of the country. In many areas, green fodder is plentiful during the rainy season but becomes scarce during summer. Drought, shortage of irrigation, limited land for fodder cultivation and rising feed prices can make the situation even more difficult.
Feed and Fodder Availability in India
Earlier national estimates showed that India had around 734.2 million tonnes of green fodder against a requirement of 827.2 million tonnes, resulting in a deficit of about 11.24%. Dry fodder availability was approximately 326.4 million tonnes against a requirement of 426.1 million tonnes, giving a deficit of about 23.4%. Concentrate feed availability was around 61 million tonnes compared with a requirement of 85.8 million tonnes, resulting in a deficit of approximately 28.9% (Kumar et al., 2021).
In simple terms, the estimated supply met approximately:
| Feed resource | Requirement met by available supply |
| Green fodder | 88.8% |
| Dry fodder | 76.6% |
| Concentrate feed | 71.1% |
These figures represent national livestock-level estimates.
What Does the Situation Look Like at Farm Level?
National figures do not always show what an individual cow actually receives. A recent all-India assessment of in-milk cattle provides a useful example.
For an in-milk indigenous cow, the estimated requirement was about 25 kg green fodder, 6 kg dry fodder and 2.25 kg concentrate per day. The reported supply was approximately 10.31 kg green fodder, 9.47 kg dry fodder and 2.46 kg concentrate per day. Therefore, green-fodder supply met only about 41% of the estimated requirement.
For an in-milk crossbred cow, the estimated requirement was approximately 30 kg green fodder, 7 kg dry fodder and 4.5 kg concentrate per day. The reported supply was about 14.70 kg green fodder, 9.07 kg dry fodder and 2.97 kg concentrate. Thus, green-fodder supply met about 49% of the estimated requirement, while concentrate supply met about 66% (recent all-India field assessment).
Major Gaps in Feed Availability
- Shortage of Green Fodder
Green fodder is one of the major gaps, particularly for dairy animals. Many farmers depend mainly on crop residues and purchased feed when green fodder is unavailable.
- Seasonal Shortage
Feed availability changes with the season. During the rainy season, farmers may have sufficient green fodder, whereas summer and drought periods can create serious shortages.
- Limited Land for Fodder Crops
Farmers have to use their land for food crops, cash crops and fodder. As a result, only a small proportion of agricultural land is specifically used for fodder production.
- Poor Utilization of Crop Residues
India produces large amounts of crop residues, but many residues are low in nutritional value. Better processing, supplementation and conservation can improve their usefulness as animal feed.
- Regional Differences
Feed may be available in one region but scarce in another. Transporting bulky green fodder over long distances is difficult and expensive. Therefore, national feed availability does not mean that every farmer has sufficient feed.
- Increasing Feed Cost
Feed is one of the major expenses in livestock farming. When concentrate prices increase, farmers may reduce the amount offered to their animals. This can be particularly harmful to high-producing dairy cows.
- Unbalanced Feeding
Even when an animal receives enough feed by weight, it may still not receive enough energy, protein or minerals. Feeding only crop residues or low-quality roughage is not sufficient for a high-producing dairy animal.
What is Negative Energy Balance?
Negative energy balance occurs when an animal uses more energy than it receives from its feed.
This situation is common after calving. Milk production increases rapidly during early lactation, but the cow cannot immediately eat enough feed to meet the increased energy requirement. The cow therefore starts using stored body fat to make up the difference.
Some loss of body reserves after calving is normal. The problem occurs when the energy shortage becomes severe or continues for too long.
Why Does Negative Energy Balance Affect Reproduction?
Delayed Return to Heat
Energy deficiency can delay the return of normal ovarian activity after calving. The cow may take longer to show her first heat.
Weak Heat Signs
A cow in poor nutritional condition may show very weak signs of heat. Farmers may therefore fail to notice the correct time for artificial insemination or mating.
Delayed Ovulation
Poor energy status affects reproductive hormones and follicular development. This can delay normal ovulation (Butler, 2000; Beam & Butler, 1999).
Poor Conception
Excessive loss of body condition can affect follicular development, ovulation and the reproductive environment. As a result, the chances of conception may decrease (Butler, 2003).
Longer Calving Interval
When heat and conception are delayed, the cow takes longer to become pregnant again. This increases the calving interval and can reduce the productive lifetime of the animal.
Which Farm Animals Are Affected?
Cattle and Buffalo
The problem is particularly important in high-producing dairy cows and buffaloes during early lactation. Proper feeding before calving and during the first weeks after calving can help reduce excessive body-weight loss.
Sheep and Goats
Late pregnancy is a critical period, especially when ewes or does are carrying twins or triplets. Poor nutrition can result in weak offspring, poor milk production and poor body condition.
Pigs
In breeding sows, insufficient feed intake during pregnancy or lactation can cause excessive loss of body reserves and may affect return to heat and subsequent reproductive performance.
Horses
Mares also require adequate energy and nutrients during pregnancy and lactation. Poor body condition can negatively affect reproductive performance.
How Can Farmers Reduce the Feed Gap?
Farmers can take several simple steps to improve feed availability:
- Grow fodder crops whenever land and water are available.
- Include fodder crops in the normal crop rotation.
- Preserve surplus green fodder as hay or silage.
- Store crop residues properly for use during feed-shortage periods.
- Improve the feeding value of poor-quality crop residues through appropriate supplementation.
- Provide balanced rations according to the animal’s body weight, milk production and stage of pregnancy or lactation.
- Give special attention to animals during late pregnancy and early lactation.
- Provide mineral mixtures as recommended by a veterinarian or animal nutritionist.
- Ensure clean drinking water is available throughout the day.
- Reduce feed wastage during storage and feeding.
- Establish community fodder banks in areas that regularly experience drought or seasonal shortages.
Alternative feed resources can also help fill the gap, but they should be used only after considering their nutritional value, safety and appropriate inclusion level.
Feed Management and Reproductive Efficiency
A farmer may spend considerable money on artificial insemination, medicines and veterinary treatment, but poor nutrition can still result in reproductive failure. If the animal does not receive enough energy and nutrients, simply repeating breeding or treatment may not solve the problem.
Therefore, when a cow repeatedly fails to show heat or conceive, feeding and body condition should also be checked along with reproductive health.
Conclusion
India has a large cattle and livestock population, but feed availability does not always match the nutritional needs of animals. National estimates indicate shortages of green fodder, dry fodder and concentrate feed, while farm-level observations show a particularly large gap in green-fodder supply to in-milk cattle.
This shortage becomes more important after calving. When the energy obtained from feed is not enough to support milk production, the cow enters negative energy balance and starts using her body reserves. Excessive or prolonged energy deficiency can delay ovarian activity, weaken heat expression, delay ovulation and reduce conception.
The solution is not simply to produce more feed. India needs to produce, conserve, store and use feed more efficiently. At the farm level, providing good-quality green fodder, adequate dry fodder, suitable concentrates, minerals and clean water—especially during late pregnancy and early lactation—can help maintain body condition and reproductive health.
Good reproduction starts with good nutrition. A well-fed animal has a better chance of showing normal heat, conceiving on time and remaining productive for a longer period.
References
Beam, S. W., & Butler, W. R. (1999). Effects of energy balance on follicular development and first ovulation in postpartum dairy cows. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement, 54, 411–424.
Butler, W. R. (2000). Nutritional interactions with reproductive performance in dairy cattle. Animal Reproduction Science, 60–61, 449–457.
Butler, W. R. (2003). Energy balance relationships with follicular development, ovulation and fertility in postpartum dairy cows. Livestock Production Science, 83(2–3), 211–218.
Government of India. (2019). 20th Livestock Census. Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India.
Kumar, S., Dey, A., Kumar, P., & others. (2021). Livestock feed and fodder availability in India: Challenges and opportunities. Sustainability, 13, 9414.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. (2024). Innovative
