Emerging Diseases: A challenges

Emerging Diseases: A challenges

Govind Kumar Choudhary, Priya Sahay, R. K. Nirala, Nirbhay Kumar, Archana and Kumari Anjana

Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology

Bihar Veterinary College, Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna

Corresponding Author Email: drgovindvet2003@gmail.com

 Introduction

Humans, animals, and the environment collectively play an essential role in the emergence and spread of infectious diseases [1]. A significant proportion of human infectious diseases originate from animals. According to the “Asia Pacific Strategy for Emerging Diseases: 2010” report, approximately 60% of emerging human infections are zoonotic, with over 70% traced back to wildlife species. Many newly recognized human diseases in recent decades are linked to animal origins, often associated with the consumption of animal-derived foods [2].

The term “Zoonoses” comes from the Greek words “Zoon” (animal) and “nosos” (disease). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a zoonosis as any disease or infection naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans [3]. Around 61% of all human pathogens are zoonotic [4], representing a major global public health concern. Zoonoses disproportionately affect poor livestock workers in low- and middle-income countries, causing an estimated 2.4 billion human illness cases and 2.7 million deaths annually, along with serious negative impacts on animal health and livestock productivity [5].

Classification of Zoonoses

Diverse pathogens cause zoonotic diseases and can be classified by aetiology into bacterial (e.g., anthrax, salmonellosis, tuberculosis, brucellosis, plague), viral (e.g., rabies, AIDS, Ebola, avian influenza), parasitic (e.g., trichinosis, toxoplasmosis, malaria, echinococcosis), fungal (e.g., ringworm), rickettsial (e.g., Q fever), chlamydial (e.g., psittacosis), mycoplasmal (e.g., Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection), protozoal, and those caused by acellular non-viral agents such as prions (e.g., BSE) [6].

Earlier classifications included anthropozoonoses (animal to human, e.g., rabies), zooanthroponoses (human to animal, e.g., tuberculosis in cats), amphixenoses (bidirectional, e.g., staphylococcal infections), and euzoonoses (requiring humans as definitive hosts, e.g., Taenia solium) [7].

Bacterial pathogens cause most zoonoses of bovine origin, accounting for (~42%), with viruses (22%), parasites (29%), fungi (5%), and prions (2%) making up the remainder [8]. While both DNA and RNA viruses can be zoonotic, RNA viruses predominate [9].

Transmission can be direct—such as avian influenza via respiratory droplets—or via bites, as in rabies from infected animals [10]. Vector-borne spread, through arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks, also plays a role [11]. Ecologically, zoonoses are categorized into synanthropic (urban cycle, e.g., urban rabies) and exoanthropic (wild cycle, e.g., wildlife rabies, Lyme disease) [12]. Some, like yellow fever and dengue, occur in both cycles. Sapronoses originate from pathogens in soil or organic matter (e.g., histoplasmosis, legionellosis) [13,14], while cyclozoonoses require multiple vertebrate hosts (e.g., taeniasis), and metazoonoses involve both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts (e.g., arboviruses).

Although most zoonoses are animal-to-human, reverse zoonoses—human-to-animal transmission—are also documented, involving pathogens like MRSA, Campylobacter spp., and influenza A virus [15–18].

Zoonoses of Domestic Animals

Domestic animals are key sources of zoonotic infections, often amplifying pathogens from wildlife [19]. Around 60% of human infectious diseases come from vertebrate animals [20], and domestication has increased human–animal contact [21]. Zoonotic agents—bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi—can be transmitted through direct contact, ingestion, inhalation, conjunctival entry, or bites [20].

Common livestock and pets—cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, horses, pigs—serve as reservoirs for diseases like anthrax, rabies, tuberculosis, brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, listeriosis, rotavirus infection, and Q fever [22,23].

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, remains significant. This soil-borne spore-former infects humans via contact with infected animals/products (meat, hides, bones). Human-to-human spread is rare. Globally, 2,000–20,000 cases occur yearly, with outbreaks reported in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the USA, Zimbabwe, Iran, Iraq, South Africa, and Turkey [24]. In humans, forms include cutaneous, gastrointestinal, and pulmonary, with mortality ranging from 25–65% in intestinal to nearly 100% in pulmonary anthrax [25].

Bovine tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, M. tuberculosis, or rarely M. caprae [26–28], is still prevalent in many countries, causing ~5–10% of human TB cases, especially in children. Transmission is via unpasteurized milk or inhalation of aerosols [29]. High-risk groups include farmers, veterinarians, and slaughterhouse workers [30].

Brucellosis, a neglected zoonosis [31], causes over 500,000 human cases annually [32]. Human infection is mainly via unpasteurized dairy, but also through aerosols or contact with animal secretions [33]. In humans, it causes fever, joint pain, fatigue, and severe complications like meningitis or endocarditis; in animals, it causes abortion, reduced milk yield, and infertility.

Rabies, caused by Rhabdoviridae virus, kills 30,000–70,000 people annually [34]. Dogs are the main source in developing countries, while wildlife dominates in developed nations [35]. Incubation varies from days to years [36], with two forms—furious and paralytic—presenting with symptoms like agitation, hallucinations, and hydrophobia.

Zoonoses of Pets, Companion Animals, and Birds

Pet ownership, including exotic species, has risen significantly, increasing zoonotic risks [37]. Pets can carry bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, transmitting diseases such as campylobacteriosis, chlamydiosis, cat-scratch fever, leptospirosis, monkeypox, MRSA, toxoplasmosis, and tularemia [38].

Birds—parrots, parakeets, canaries—can transmit Chlamydophila psittaci, Salmonella spp., Mycobacterium spp., avian influenza H5N1, and more [39]. Some carry bacteria like Pasteurella spp., Klebsiella spp., and E. coli O157:H7 [40].

Transmission occurs through direct or indirect contact, bites, scratches, or contaminated environments [41]. Cat-scratch disease, caused by Bartonella henselae, spreads through bites, scratches, or flea/tick vectors, leading to local lesions and swollen lymph nodes [42].

Zoonoses Associated with Food-Borne Pathogens

Food-borne zoonoses remain a major cause of diarrheal illness worldwide [43], affecting 600 million people annually and killing 420,000, including 125,000 children [44]. Major pathogens include Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., STEC, and hepatitis E virus [45].

STEC, particularly E. coli O157:H7, causes bloody diarrhea and can lead to hemolytic uremic syndrome [46]. Other food-borne pathogens include Brucella spp., Listeria spp., Clostridium spp., norovirus, and BSE agents. Risk factors include poor hygiene during animal slaughter and consumption of undercooked animal products.

Emerging and Re-Emerging Zoonoses

Emerging zoonoses are newly identified or increasing in incidence or range. At least 250 such diseases have been noted in the last 70 years [5], driven by changes in human–animal interaction, habitat, vector biology, farming, food safety, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change [47]. Wildlife reservoirs are significant [48].

Examples include avian influenza, BSE, Ebola, hantavirus, West Nile fever, MRSA, cat scratch disease, SFTS, MERS, SARS, and COVID-19 [37]. Re-emerging examples include rabies, brucellosis, Japanese encephalitis, M. bovis TB, and Schistosoma japonicum.

SFTS, caused by a bunyavirus, is spread by the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis [49]. First reported in China in 2007 [50], it causes fever, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and, in severe cases, multi-organ failure, with a mortality rate of 6–30% [51]. Transmission can be via animal contact or vectors.

MERS, caused by MERS-CoV, emerged in Saudi Arabia in 2012 [52] and spreads from camels to humans, causing severe respiratory illness with ~30–35% fatality. Infected camels are mostly asymptomatic, but in humans, it leads to serious lower respiratory tract infections [53].

Neglected Zoonoses

In many developing regions, several zoonotic diseases remain endemic, posing significant threats to public health, livelihoods, and local economies. Because they persist over long periods and are often under-reported, these diseases receive less global attention and funding compared to emerging or re-emerging zoonoses, earning the label “neglected zoonoses”. In contrast, most developed countries have implemented effective strategies that have reduced or eliminated the prevalence of many of these infections [54].

Tropical and subtropical countries bear a particularly heavy burden, and in such regions, these illnesses are sometimes grouped under the broader category of neglected tropical diseases. They disproportionately affect rural and marginalized populations who often lack adequate healthcare access, and because national health agendas frequently prioritize more visible or acute disease threats, these infections quietly cause considerable morbidity. Recognizing the seriousness of the issue, representatives from 32 WHO member states met at the World Health Assembly in May 2013 and made commitments to control 17 neglected zoonotic diseases, leading to the development of a WHO roadmap outlining preventive and control strategies [55].

Some of the most important neglected zoonotic diseases include rabies, anthrax, cysticercosis, brucellosis, foodborne trematode infections, leishmaniasis, echinococcosis, and zoonotic sleeping sickness [56]. Specific examples of neglected zoonoses in different regions include rabies in Africa and Asia; echinococcosis and taeniasis (Taenia solium) in Asia, Africa, and Latin America; leishmaniasis in Asia and Africa; and cysticercosis along with foodborne trematodiasis in Africa [57]. Despite their high burden, these diseases often remain absent from the priority lists of many countries, further perpetuating their neglect.

Impact of Zoonoses

Zoonotic diseases exert far-reaching impacts on human and animal health. The magnitude of their effects is often assessed using epidemiological indicators such as disease prevalence, incidence, morbidity, mortality, and associated economic losses [58]. In human populations—especially in low-income and rural communities—zoonoses can reduce work capacity and economic productivity, affecting the ability of families to sustain livelihoods. In underdeveloped parts of Africa and Asia, these impacts are compounded by limited healthcare infrastructure, and in some cases, affected individuals may suffer social isolation, which can lead to additional mental health challenges.

A growing global health concern is the link between zoonoses and antibiotic resistance. Many bacterial zoonoses involve pathogens that are resistant to multiple drugs, making treatment more difficult and costly. Patients with antibiotic-resistant infections require specialized care, expensive medications, and extended treatment durations—burdens that are particularly hard to bear in resource-poor nations.

In livestock, zoonotic diseases can cause high mortality rates and severe production losses. Even when animals survive, illness often reduces productivity, leading to decreases in meat, milk, and egg yields of up to 70% [59]. This reduction in animal-derived protein further impacts human nutrition, especially in vulnerable communities. Certain zoonoses—such as brucellosis and toxoplasmosis—also impair reproductive health in animals, leading to infertility, abortions, and weak offspring, with direct financial consequences for farmers.

The economic effects extend beyond agriculture. Zoonotic outbreaks can disrupt international trade in animals and animal products. Outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), avian influenza, and anthrax have resulted in trade bans, mass culling, and costly eradication programs. Between 1995 and 2008, the total global economic losses from major zoonotic disease outbreaks exceeded USD 120 billion [60]. For example, in 2007, the UK faced significant economic damage from outbreaks of food-borne pathogens such as Campylobacter spp., non-typhoidal Salmonella, E. coli VTEC O157, Listeria monocytogenes, and norovirus [61]. Similarly, Ireland experienced major losses following Salmonella contamination in pork products [62], while Australia’s beef and sheep sectors lost 16% of their value due to zoonotic disease outbreaks.

Tourism and service industries are also vulnerable. The SARS epidemic caused major economic losses in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, while outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza affected tourism in Mexico and disrupted global poultry markets [63]. In 1994, plague outbreaks in India led to travel restrictions and economic setbacks, and similar impacts were observed in Chile and European Union countries following avian influenza outbreaks [62]. BSE outbreaks have had particularly severe consequences; for instance, bans on British beef imports during the UK crisis led to extensive mass culling programs [64]. Canada and the U.S. experienced similar trade bans after detecting BSE in their cattle populations [65]. Brucellosis continues to cause significant losses in cattle production in countries such as Kenya, Argentina, and Nigeria. Most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented global economic disruption, affecting multiple sectors—including travel, hospitality, education, and manufacturing—while pushing millions into extreme poverty [66].

Control of Zoonoses

Given that 58–61% of all human diseases are communicable and up to 75% originate from animals [67], controlling zoonotic diseases requires a comprehensive, multi-sectoral approach that integrates human, animal, and environmental health measures [68]. Surveillance forms the foundation of effective control, enabling early detection of infections in humans and animals, identification of reservoirs and vectors, and mapping of endemic “hotspot” regions. Because pathogens like SARS coronavirus and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses can spread rapidly across borders, coordinated surveillance at local, national, regional, and global levels is critical.

Effective surveillance depends on well-equipped laboratories, trained personnel, advanced diagnostic tools, and sustainable funding [69]. Four main types of surveillance are useful for zoonoses control:

1. Pathogen surveillance– detection and identification of disease-causing agents.
2. Serological surveillance– detection of antibodies in blood samples from humans and animals.
3. Syndrome surveillance– identification of disease trends based on symptoms rather than specific pathogens.
4. Risk surveillance– monitoring environmental and behavioral factors that facilitate disease transmission.

In addition to surveillance, control measures include treatment of infected individuals, vaccination of healthy animals and people, movement restrictions for animals, population control for certain species, and “test-and-cull” programs for diseases like anthrax, glanders, and Rift Valley fever. Proper disposal of infectious materials—such as aborted fetuses—can help control brucellosis spread. Personal hygiene measures and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE)—including gloves, masks, helmets, and goggles—are essential, as is disinfection of contaminated areas.

For vector-borne zoonoses, control requires integration of epidemiological surveillance with vector management [70]. This includes monitoring vector populations, understanding host dynamics, assessing pathogen virulence, and considering socio-economic and environmental factors. Integrated pest and vector management strategies combine biological, physical, and mechanical control methods [71].

Control programs in developing countries must address both human and animal health components, especially for neglected zoonoses. When outbreaks span multiple nations, a regional coordinated response—guided by the One Health framework—is ideal. This calls for collaboration among veterinarians, physicians, epidemiologists, occupational health experts, environmental scientists, and public health authorities. An example is the Integrated Control of Neglected Zoonoses project in Africa, which promoted cross-sectoral collaboration between experts from 21 European and African countries [72].

However, many resource-limited nations lack the funds to sustain such programs. In these cases, international organizations (WHO, FAO, OIE, USAID, USDA, EU, DFID, BBSRC, DANIDA) and private donors (e.g., the Wellcome Trust, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) play a key role in financing and supporting zoonoses control [73].

Zoonoses and One Health

The One Health concept acknowledges the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, advocating for interdisciplinary collaboration among wildlife biologists, veterinarians, physicians, ecologists, agricultural scientists, epidemiologists, microbiologists, and engineers [74]. This approach is particularly valuable in developing countries, where controlling zoonoses not only protects health but also improves food security, reduces poverty, and strengthens economies [75].

International agencies—including WHO, OIE, FAO, CDC, USDA, the United Nations System Influenza Coordination (UNSIC), and the European Commission—support the One Health approach to tackling zoonotic threats [76]. According to Pieracci et al. [77], effective One Health implementation in zoonoses control involves:

1. Establishing a dedicated Zoonotic Disease Unitto improve coordination between human and animal health authorities.
2. Developing a national strategyfor zoonotic disease prevention and control.
3. Engaging leadership from multiple sectors to prioritize zoonotic disease research and funding.
4. Formulating veterinary public health policiesin collaboration with international organizations.
5. Updating priority zoonotic disease listsevery 2–5 years, supported by ongoing surveillance and diagnostics.

The CDC’s One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization process further emphasizes compiling a ranked list of emerging and re-emerging zoonoses, applying targeted measures to reduce transmission, recognizing all One Health sector contributions, and producing regular progress reports at local and regional levels.

In summary, the One Health approach is not just a theoretical framework—it is an actionable, integrated strategy that strengthens zoonoses prevention and control through coordinated surveillance, effective policy-making, and joint research efforts. By bridging the gap between human, animal, and environmental health, it provides a sustainable pathway to reducing the global burden of zoonotic diseases.

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