PROCEDURES FOR VETERO-LEGAL CASES AND WILDLIFE FORENSICS

May 17, 2026

PROCEDURES FOR VETERO-LEGAL CASES AND WILDLIFE FORENSICS

Abstract

Vetero-legal cases and wildlife forensics represent critical components of Veterinary Forensic Science, where veterinary expertise is applied to legal investigations involving animals. Veterinarians play a pivotal role in examining live animals, carcasses, and animal products to determine factors such as cause and time of death, species identification, and evidence of cruelty, poisoning, or malpractice. Standard procedures in vetero-legal cases include case registration, animal identification, clinical and post-mortem examination, systematic evidence collection, proper documentation, and maintenance of chain of custody to ensure legal admissibility. Laboratory analyses such as toxicology and histopathology further support forensic conclusions, which are presented in courts by veterinarians acting as expert witnesses.

Wildlife forensics extends these principles to address crimes against wild species, particularly under legislations such as the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. It plays a vital role in combating illegal wildlife trade and biodiversity loss by enabling species identification from highly processed or fragmented biological materials. Emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence, advanced imaging, and forensic entomology, have enhanced the accuracy and efficiency of investigations. Despite significant advancements, challenges such as inadequate training, limited forensic infrastructure, poor evidence handling, environmental constraints, and legal complexities hinder effective implementation. Strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration, improving awareness, and adopting standardized protocols are essential to enhance the reliability and impact of vetero-legal and wildlife forensic investigations, thereby ensuring justice and conservation outcomes.

Keywords:
Veterinary Forensic Science, Vetero-legal cases, Wildlife forensics, Chain of custody, Molecular techniques.

INTRODUCTION

The role of veterinarians in vetero-legal cases has been indispensable to analyse the live animals, carcass, parts of the body, skin, bones, meat and meat products to clear disputes arising for ownership, insurance claims, provide data and opinion on sex, age, the time of death, method of death and it is the rightful duty of veterinarians under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and the Veterinary Council Act, 1984.Vetero-Legal cases involve applying veterinary forensics to legal matters, including animal cruelty, poisoning, and malpractice (1). Key areas include post-mortem examinations, evidence collection (hair, pug marks), and forensic toxicology, often requiring documentation for police investigations and can also help in disease diagnosis in a herd and treat the rest with similar clinical symptoms (2). An expert veterinarian must know the differentiation of alteration of cells after death and disease conditions. Any vetero-legal cases must be sent from an authoritative body and the presence of the same is also ensured. In every case, veterinarians are required to present their findings as expert witnesses in courts of law giving huge powers to the Post mortem reports (3).

Wildlife forensics serves as a boon in solving long pending cases of wildlife crimes. Wildlife forensics have proven to be fast, accurate and reliable criminal investigation processes with comprehensive coverage and easy accessibility. It has also helped resolving taxonomic disputes, determining evolutionary history; origins and even endemism. Over 96,000 kg of pangolin scales, 225,000 kg of ivory, 2200 tiger skin, 3800 Asian bears and 4500 African rhino’s horns were seized or have entered the illegal trade market in the last ten years (4, 5). The smuggled animals may serve as meat, traditional medicine, decorative items, ornamental etc. While animal carcasses are easily identifiable at the species level, wildlife products are stripped off recognizable characters at their crime scenes. Usage of wild meat or other body parts in food processing units (fish fillets, sausages, steaks), decorative items (bone carvings, fur trim, tortoiseshell), and medicinal packages (ground bone or horn, dried organs), are also tricky to identify and are often obscured. Development in fields of genetics, molecular and evolutionary biology and other techniques have further contributed in accurate identification of species (6).

PROCEDURES IN VETERO-LEGAL CASES:

1)Case Registration & History Taking

In vetero-legal cases, the first step is proper registration of the case along with detailed history taking. The veterinarian must collect all relevant information from the animal owner, police officials, or eyewitnesses. This includes the time, date, location, and circumstances of the incident. It is important to document everything accurately and objectively without making assumptions or forming early conclusions, as this information may later be used in legal proceedings (7).

2) Identification of Animal

Correct identification of the animal is essential for legal authenticity. The veterinarian records details such as species, breed, age, sex, colour, and any unique identifying marks like scars or tags. In cases where only body parts are presented proper anatomical and biochemical analysis are to be done. Photographs are often taken as supporting evidence. Proper identification ensures that the animal examined is clearly linked to the reported case and prevents confusion or disputes in court (7).

3) Clinical Examination

A thorough clinical examination is conducted to assess the animal’s condition. The veterinarian carefully observes and records all injuries, abnormalities, or signs of disease or poisoning. Details such as the type, size, shape, and location of wounds are noted precisely before incision of the carcass. Diagrams and photographs may be used to support findings, as accurate documentation strengthens the medico-legal reports (3).

4) Collection of Evidence

Evidence collection is a critical step in vetero-legal work. Samples such as blood, urine, faeces, hair, or tissue are collected depending on the case. In suspected poisoning cases, stomach contents or feed samples may also be taken. All samples must be properly preserved using suitable methods and labelled clearly to maintain their integrity for laboratory analysis (8).

5) Postmortem Examination

Postmortem Examination is done to unveil the cause of death and produce a forensic report after receiving an inquest report. This report mainly concentrates more on findings related to animal crimes, expansion of insurance covers, to provide substantial evidences pertaining to the cause of death of the animal (9).

Necropsy is perhaps the sole diagnostic technique available to veterinarian to find out the cause of death of the animals even though forensic report varies with standard necropsy report both follow same protocols and rules during its procedure (3). PM Examination is always carried out during daylight, step by step approach is followed an external examination, then each organ system is carefully checked and all the findings are documented carefully. The organ systems to be examined are external appearance, subcutaneous tissue and musculature, general observations after opening the carcass, respiratory system, cardiovascular system, digestive system, urinary system, genital system, immune system, nervous system, miscellaneous observations and a final PM diagnosis is submitted (10).

Another major aspect involves decoding the time of death while an unattended carcass is brought, this requires the knowledge of physiological changes after death but precise calculation of time of death is still out of reach to veterinarians. Collection of tissue samples is mandatory for poisoning cases and to prove the findings of necropsy using laboratory tests (9).

Photo documentation is an important part of forensic necropsies. Throughout the entire necropsy, significant findings should be photographed. The photos could provide visual support to the identify the specimen. The final report is concise and non-technical terminology is used when possible because necropsy report ultimately may have to be understood by nonmedical people (11).

6) Documentation and Record Keeping:

Documentation and record keeping are essential components of vetero-legal investigations, as they serve as primary evidence in legal proceedings. Veterinarians must carefully document all findings, including history, identification details, clinical and post-mortem observations, and sample collection procedures. Proper recording should be done immediately at the time of examination to ensure accuracy and avoid loss of information. Therefore, accurate, complete, and unbiased documentation plays a vital role in strengthening vetero-legal cases and ensuring justice.

7) Chain of custody and Court presentation

The chain of custody proves the integrity of a piece of evidence. A paper trail is maintained so that the persons who had charge of the evidence at any given time can be known quickly and summoned to testify during the trial if required. A record of the chain of evidence must be maintained and established in the court whenever presenting evidence as an exhibit. Otherwise, the evidence may be inadmissible in the court, leading to serious questions regarding its legitimacy, integrity, and the examination it is rendered (12).

Flow chart of Veterolegal Necropsy

Case Registration / Complaint

↓

Animal Examination / Postmortem (Necropsy)

↓

Evidence Collection (blood, tissues, stomach contents, hair, etc.)

↓

Labelling of Samples

(case ID, date, time, signature)

↓

Sealing & Packaging

(tamper-proof containers)

↓

Documentation

(evidence log, chain of custody record)

↓

Transfer to Laboratory

(with proper authorization & signatures)

↓

Laboratory Receipt & Verification

(condition check + entry)

↓

Laboratory Analysis

(toxicology, histopathology, microbiology)

↓

Report Preparation

(vetero-legal report with findings & opinion)

↓

Submission to Investigating Authority (police/authorized officer)

↓

Summons to Veterinarian (as Expert Witness)

↓

Court Appearance & Oath

↓

Examination-in-Chief

↓

Cross-Examination

↓

Re-Examination (if needed)

↓

Judge’s Consideration of Expert Opinion

↓

Final Judgment

Advancements in field of veterinary forensics:

Department of Veterinary Anatomy & Histology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, India, from August to September 2024, explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in identifying bones in veterolegal cases, highlighting its potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy and streamline forensic investigations. AI technologies, such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) and deep learning, offer significant advantages in veterinary education by providing personalized learning experiences. This technology is supported with several anatomical databases in the past years using them to accurately identify the species, classification of skeletal remains, even in challenging cases involving substantial decomposition (13).
Veterinary pathologists play a crucial role in identifying and characterizing diseases, aiding in treatment decisions and disease management. Veterinary forensic science has evolved as a multidisciplinary field integrating modern technologies such as DNA fingerprinting, forensic entomology, histopathology, radiology, and advanced imaging techniques.
According to, the application of DNA analysis has enabled species identification, individual animal identification, and detection of illegal wildlife trade, such as ivory and horn trafficking. Additionally, forensic entomology and post-mortem biochemical changes are increasingly used to estimate the time since death with greater precision. Despite these developments, the field continues to evolve, with increasing emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration, standardized protocols, and specialized training to strengthen vetero-legal investigations (14).
Molecular techniques such as DNA profiling using STR markers, PCR, and RFLP have become the most reliable methods for species identification, individual identification, and wildlife crime investigation. These techniques are widely used in identifying animal origin from blood, hair, bones, and tissues and even in tracking illegal wildlife trade such as ivory and horn trafficking. Additionally, next-generation sequencing (NGS) and genomic analysis are emerging as powerful tools for detailed genetic profiling and forensic comparison in complex cases (15).
Advanced imaging techniques such as radiology, computed tomography (CT), and virtual autopsy (virtopsy are increasingly used to detect internal injuries, fractures, and bullet trajectories without invasive procedures. These methods improve evidence preservation and accuracy in forensic diagnosis. Furthermore, forensic entomology has evolved with modern models such as micro-CT analysis, cuticular hydrocarbon profiling, and molecular insect analysis, which help estimate post-mortem interval (PMI) with higher precision (16).

Challenges in vetero-legal cases

Vetero-legal investigations face numerous challenges that limit their effectiveness despite advancements in veterinary forensic science. One of the major issues is the lack of awareness among animal owners and the general public, leading to underreporting of animal cruelty and poisoning cases. In addition, inadequate training of veterinarians in forensic techniques and legal procedures reduces the accuracy and reliability of investigations; improper documentation, poor evidence handling, and failure to maintain chain of custody are common problems that weaken legal cases.

Limited availability of forensic laboratories and diagnostic facilities further delays analysis and confirmation of results. Moreover, delay in reporting cases often leads to decomposition of carcasses, making it difficult to determine the exact cause of death (17). Species diversity is a boon and a challenge to veterinary pathologists, as the anatomy of a frog greatly differs from a cormorant or a giraffe (18).

Wildlife investigations pose additional challenges due to remote locations, lack of resources, and risks involved in handling wild animals. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and scavenger activity also affect post-mortem findings.

Legal complexities, including lengthy judicial processes and poor coordination between veterinary, police, and forensic departments, contribute to delays in justice. Furthermore, financial constraints, lack of standardized protocols, and ethical pressures may influence the quality of reporting. Therefore, addressing these challenges through improved training, infrastructure, awareness, and interdepartmental collaboration is essential to strengthen vetero-legal investigations and ensure justice for animals.

Wildlife forensics

India has a strong legal and policy framework to regulate and restrict wildlife trade. However, strong policies and implementation is highly required in the present Indian scenario. Under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972, trade of wild animals, plants and their derivatives is prohibited. Wildlife products are third in the row of illegal trade after narcotics and firearms. The wildlife crime is increasing rapidly and area covered under this is unknown. The major cause of exploitation of wildlife natural resources is illegal trade for medicinal needs (anti-aging and growth medicines), elephant ivory, wildlife animal skin, sport, food and clothing. In the world, more than 60 to 70% population depends on herbal medicine concern to health requirements (5).

Wildlife forensics includes the application of forensic science (application of science to the matters of Law) in solving legal matters related to Wildlife Crimes. Currently the techniques being utilized for wildlife species identification are footprints analysis at the crime sites, morphological study of the species (includes microscopic examinations of the body parts, anatomical and histological studies), serological methodology and molecular biology techniques.

1)Morphological Analysis:

Morphological analysis is the simplest and least expensive form of analysis, here we identify the species based on distinct physical appearance like skin coat colour, pattern of coloration, eyes, pinna, tails, ivory etc. Ivory trade involves Indian and African elephants which may be classified by their dentine or by the Schrager method. Whole skin or skeleton can provide an idea using morphological, anatomical and microscopic analysis are helpful in identification of the species. The major problems with morphological identifications are the non-availability of the whole animal or its intact parts preserved as such (19).

2) Footprint or Pugmark analysis:

Footprints are impressions of animals’ foot on surfaces where they walkout or places of their captivity. The type and age of the species identification is based on the pattern of the footprints and their size. The major problem with footprint impressions-based identification of species includes is undetectable footprint on hard surfaces and sometimes these footprint sites are often contaminated by presence of other animals (19).

3)Molecular biology techniques

Molecular techniques are proven to be more reliable comparison to others techniques such as anatomy, morphology, serology as well as microscopic. Initially, DNA-based methods utilized were Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) and Random Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). The DNA markers have been used in species identification and relationship establishment between different species (19).

CONCLUSION

Vetero-legal cases and wildlife forensics play a crucial role in ensuring justice for animals and protecting biodiversity under frameworks such as the Wildlife Protection Act 1972. The integration of traditional methods like morphological and pugmark analysis with advanced molecular techniques has significantly improved the accuracy of investigations. However, challenges such as limited infrastructure, lack of training, and poor coordination continue to hinder effective implementation. Strengthening forensic facilities, adopting standardized protocols, and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration are essential for progress. Overall, veterinary forensic science stands as a vital tool in combating wildlife crime and solve long list of pending veterolegal cases.

References

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